The Vercelli gospels laid open: An investigation into the inks used to write the oldest Gospels in Latin

An ancient religious manuscript datable to the 4th century A.D., the Codex Eusebii Evangeliorum or Vercelli Gospels, has been analysed by portable Raman and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry. The manuscript belongs to the Cathedral Treasure Museum of Vercelli (Italy) and is reputed to be the oldest existent copy of the Gospels written in Latin, being therefore of particular relevance to biblical scholars. Red and black inks were characterised: minium and cinnabar were identified in red text, and carbon black and metal gallate in black text. Moreover, XRF spectrometry allowed discrimination of black inks with similar composition on the basis of metal impurities. The black ink was found to be of the iron-gall type, thus resulting in the oldest occurrence of the use of this kind of ink in Western manuscripts and allowing to date its introduction at least back to the 4th century A.D.; moreover, the hypothesis that a few pages had been written in a later time has been verified on the basis of differences in inks' composition.