Exploring the potential of fig leaves (Ficus carica L.): a review of their valorization as valuable bioresources

Fig leaves (Ficus carica L.) represent an abundant agro-industrial by-product that remains largely underutilized despite their rich phytochemical profile and significant bioactive potential which may be of interest for food and nutraceutical applications. This review examines the valorization potential of fig leaves, with emphasis on their chemical composition, reported biological activities, and extraction strategies for the recovery of functional constituents. Fig leaves contain primary metabolites, including carbohydrates, organic acids, proteins, fatty acids and tocopherols, together with a diverse secondary metabolite profile dominated by phenolic acids, flavonoids, furanocoumarins, and terpenoids. In particular, chlorogenic acid, caffeoylmalic acid, rutin, quercetin derivatives, psoralen, and bergapten contribute to the technological and biological relevance of this biomass. Reported studies demonstrate antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and antiproliferative activities, although the strength of evidence differs among applications and is frequently based on in vitro or preclinical models. The review further compares conventional extraction methods with emerging green technologies, including ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, natural deep eutectic solvents, subcritical water extraction, steam explosion, and hybrid approaches. These methods may improve recovery efficiency while reducing solvent use, processing time, and environmental impact. Nevertheless, cultivar-dependent compositional variability, the presence of phototoxic furanocoumarins, and regulatory requirements remain important considerations for food-related use. Overall, fig leaves represent a promising underutilized plant-derived source of bioactive ingredients, provided that extraction processes, safety assessment, and compositional standardization are carefully addressed.